Monkeypox (mpox), a re-emerging disease
Keywords:
monkeypox, monkeypox virus, Orthopoxvirus, Poxviridae, mpox.Abstract
Introduction: Monkeypox is a zoonosis endemic to Central and West Africa, first reported in monkeys in 1958. An exploratory search was conducted in the Pubmed/Medline, Scopus, and SciELO databases between April and June 2022, including the terms monkeypox and monkeypox virus. A total of 62 scientific articles with different epidemiological designs were selected.Objective: To conduct an updated narrative review on the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis, complications, and treatment of monkeypox.
Developing: Monkeypox virus is part of the Poxviridae family and Monkeypox species. Direct or indirect contact with animals generates its transmission, it can be through bites and scratches, that is, the virus enters through non-intact skin. Transmission by close contact with infected humans has also been reported. Skin rash is the predominant sign of this infection, which presents with a morphology described as well-defined and circumscribed, deep lesions, which present central umbilication and which in turn go through a series of stages ranging from macules, papules, vesicles until ending in pustules.
Conclusions: Monkeypox is a disease endemic to Central Africa and West Africa; however, in 2022 outbreaks have been described in different parts of the world. Affected patients report contagion by close contact. Confirmation of cases by molecular laboratory tests is recommended. Smallpox vaccination is cross-protective against monkeypox. Its administration can modify and prevent clinical disease.
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References
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2. Cho CT, Wenner HA. Virus de la viruela del mono. Bacteriol Rev. 1973; 37(1):1-18. DOI: 10.1128/br.37.1.1-18.1973
3. Hutin YJ, Williams RJ, Malfait P, Pebody R, Loparev VN, Ropp SL, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1996 to 1997. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001; 7(3):434-8. DOI: 10.3201/eid0703.010311
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5. Mauldin MR, McCollum AM, Nakazawa Y, Mandra A, Whitehouse ER, Davidson W, et al. Exportation of monkeypox virus from the African continent. J Infect Dis. 2022; 225(8):1367-76. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa559
6. Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, Likofata J, Mukadi D, Monroe B, et al. Extended Human-to-Human Transmission during a Monkeypox Outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016; 22(6):1014-21. DOI: 10.3201/eid2206.150579
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9. Hoff NA, Doshi RH, Colwell B, Kebela-Illunga B, Mukadi P, Mossoko M, et al. Evolution of a Disease Surveillance System: An Increase in Reporting of Human Monkeypox Disease in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2001-2013. Int J Trop Dis Health. 2017; 25(2):IJTDH.35885. DOI: 10.9734/IJTDH/2017/35885
10. Sadeuh-Mba SA, Yonga MG, Els M, Batejat C, Eyangoh S, Caro V, et al. Monkeypox virus phylogenetic similarities between a human case detected in Cameroon in 2018 and the 2017-2018 outbreak in Nigeria. Infect Genet Evol. 2019; 69:8-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.01.006
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13. Kabuga AI, El Zowalaty ME. A review of the monkeypox virus and a recent outbreak of skin rash disease in Nigeria. J Med Virol. 2019; 91(4):533-540. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25348
14. Patrono LV, Pléh K, Samuni L, Ulrich M, Röthemeier C, Sachse A, et al. Monkeypox virus emergence in wild chimpanzees reveals distinct clinical outcomes and viral diversity. Nat Microbiol. 2020; 5(7):955-65. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0706-0
15. Erez N, Achdout H, Milrot E, Schwartz Y, Wiener-Well Y, Paran N, et al. Diagnosis of Imported Monkeypox, Israel, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019; 25(5):980-3. DOI: 10.3201/eid2505.190076
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17. Ogoina D, Izibewule JH, Ogunleye A, Ederiane E, Anebonam U, Neni A, et al. The 2017 human monkeypox outbreak in Nigeria-Report of outbreak experience and response in the Niger Delta University Teaching Hospital, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. PLoS One. 2019; 14(4):e0214229. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214229
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19. Walsh D. Poxviruses: Slipping and sliding through transcription and translation. PLoS Pathog. 2017; 13(11):e1006634. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006634
20. Koutmou KS, Schuller AP, Brunelle JL, Radhakrishnan A, Djuranovic S, Green R. Ribosomes slide on lysine-encoding homopolymeric A stretches. Elife. 2015; 4:e05534. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.05534
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23. Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human Monkeypox: Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2019; 33(4):1027-1043. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2019.03.001
24. Formenty P, Muntasir MO, Damon I, Chowdhary V, Opoka ML, Monimart C, et al. Human monkeypox outbreak caused by novel virus belonging to Congo Basin clade, Sudan, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010; 16(10):1539-45. DOI: 10.3201/eid1610.100713
25. Ramdass P, Mullick S, Farber HF. Viral Skin Diseases. Prim Care. 2015; 42(4):517-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.pop.2015.08.006
26. Rimoin AW, Mulembakani PM, Johnston SC, Lloyd Smith JO, Kisalu NK, Kinkela TL, et al. Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2010; 107(37):16262-7. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1005769107
27. Morand A, Delaigue S, Morand JJ. Review of poxvirus: emergence of monkeypox. Med Sante Trop. 2017; 27(1):29-39. DOI: 10.1684/mst.2017.0653
28. Quiner CA, Moses C, Monroe BP, Nakazawa Y, Doty JB, Hughes CM, et al. Presumptive risk factors for monkeypox in rural communities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS One. 2017; 12(2):e0168664. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168664
29. Durski KN, McCollum AM, Nakazawa Y, Petersen BW, Reynolds MG, Briand S, et al. Emergence of Monkeypox - West and Central Africa, 1970-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018; 67(10):306-10. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6710a5
30. Sklenovská N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of Monkeypox as the Most Important Orthopoxvirus Infection in Humans. Front Public Health. 2018; 6:241. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00241
31. Prier JE, Sauer RM. A pox disease of monkeys. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1960; 85:951-9. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1960.tb50015.x
32. Wenner HA, Macasaet FD, Kamitsuka PS, Kidd P. Monkey pox. I. Clinical, virologic and immunologic studies. Am J Epidemiol. 1968; 87(3):551-66. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120846
33. Reynolds MG, Carroll DS, Karem KL. Factors affecting the likelihood of monkeypox's emergence and spread in the post-smallpox era. Curr Opin Virol. 2012; 2(3):335-43. DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2012.02.004
34. Reynolds MG, Damon IK. Outbreaks of human monkeypox after cessation of smallpox vaccination. Trends Microbiol. 2012; 20(2):80-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2011.12.001
35. Damon IK. Status of human monkeypox: clinical disease, epidemiology and research. Vaccine. 2011; 29 Suppl 4:D54-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.014
36. Weaver JR, Isaacs SN. Monkeypox virus and insights into its immunomodulatory proteins. Immunol Rev. 2008; 225:96-113. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00691.x
37. Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, Graham MB, Sejvar J, Likos A, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41(12):1742-51. DOI: 10.1086/498115
38. Parker S, Nuara A, Buller RM, Schultz DA. Human monkeypox: an emerging zoonotic disease. Future Microbiol. 2007; 2(1):17-34. DOI: 10.2217/17460913.2.1.17
39. Bernard SM, Anderson SA. Qualitative assessment of risk for monkeypox associated with domestic trade in certain animal species, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006; 12(12):1827-33. DOI: 10.3201/eid1212.060454
40. Lewis MW, Graham MB, Hammarlund E, Hanifin J, Slifka MK. Monkeypox without exanthem. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356(20):2112-4. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc062788
41. Nalca A, Rimoin AW, Bavari S, Whitehouse CA. Reemergence of monkeypox: prevalence, diagnostics, and countermeasures. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41(12):1765-71. DOI: 10.1086/498155
42. Harris E. What to Know About Monkeypox. JAMA. 2022; 327(23):2278-9. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2022.9499
43. Karem KL, Reynolds M, Braden Z, Lou G, Bernard N, Patton J, et al. characterization of acute-phase humoral immunity to monkeypox: use of immunoglobulin M enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of monkeypox infection during the 2003 North American outbreak. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2005; 12(7):867-72. DOI: 10.1128/CDLI.12.7.867-872.2005
44. Meyer H, Perrichot M, Stemmler M, Emmerich P, Schmitz H, Varaine F, et al. Outbreaks of disease suspected of being due to human monkeypox virus infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2001. J Clin Microbiol. 2002; 40(8):2919-21. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.40.8.2919-2921.2002
45. Olson VA, Laue T, Laker MT, Babkin IV, Drosten C, Shchelkunov SN, et al. Real-time PCR system for detection of orthopoxviruses and simultaneous identification of smallpox virus. J Clin Microbiol. 2004; 42(5):1940-6. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.42.5.1940-1946.2004
46. Sale TA, Melski JW, Stratman EJ. Monkeypox: an epidemiologic and clinical comparison of African and US disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006; 55(3):478-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2006.05.061
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Published
2022-12-15
How to Cite
1.
Zuluaga-Gómez M, Quintero-Vanegas S, Gómez-Roldán JA, Agudelo-Herrera AM, Giraldo JP, Gonzalez-Arroyave D, et al. Monkeypox (mpox), a re-emerging disease. Rev Cubana Med Milit [Internet]. 2022 Dec. 15 [cited 2025 Apr. 29];51(4):e02202338. Available from: https://revmedmilitar.sld.cu/index.php/mil/article/view/2338
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